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Additionally, ER stress in AECII cells inhibited PINK1-mediated mitophagy, leading to extracellular release of mtDNA, which activated toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) and triggered transforming growth factor- (TGF-) secretion, further increasing susceptibility to pulmonary fibrosis ( Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) acts as an anti-OS sensor that activates antioxidant responses within cells and is a crucial regulator of mitophagy, thereby inhibiting fibrosis by maintaining mitochondrial mass and function